Translation is the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language (the "source text") and the production, in another language, of an equivalent text (the "target text," or "translation") that communicates the same message.
Translation must take into account a number of constraints, including context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions, their idioms and the like.
Traditionally translation has been a human activity, though attempts have been made to computerize or otherwise automate the translation of natural-language texts (machine translation) or to use computers as an aid to translation (computer-assisted translation).
Specialized Translation
Any type of written text can be a candidate for translation, however, the translation industry is often categorized by a number of areas of specialization. Each specialization has its own challenges and difficulties. An incomplete list of these specialized types of translation includes:
Commercial
The translation of commercial (business) texts. This category may include marketing and promotional materials directed to consumers, or the translation of administrative texts.
Computer
The translation of computer programs and related documents (manuals, help files, web sites.)
The notion of localization, that is the adaptation of the translation to the target language and culture, is gaining prevalence in this area of specialization.
(Note that the term "computer translation" is sometimes used to refer to the practice of machine translation, using computers to automatically translate texts.)
Video-game
The translation of video games is a very recent and specialised area within translation studies. Video game translation presents a variety of challenges to translators as they must convey the intricacies of both technical and colloquial language to the target text.
The pitfalls of lacklustre video game translation are well documented in the case of "All your base are belong to us".
"General"
The translation of "general" texts. In practice, few texts are really "general"; most fall into a specialty but are not seen as such.
Legal
The translation of legal documents (laws, contracts, treaties, etc.).
A skilled legal translator is normally as adept at the law (often with in-depth legal training) as with translation, since inaccuracies in legal translations can have serious results.
(One example of problematic translation is the Treaty of Waitangi, where the English and Maori versions differ in certain important areas.)
Sometimes, to prevent such problems, one language will be declared authoritative, with the translations not being considered legally binding, although in many cases this is not possible, as one party does not want to be seen as subservient to the other.
Literary
The translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) If the translation of non-literary works is regarded as a skill, the translation of fiction and poetry is much more of an art.
Medical
The translation of works of a medical nature.
Like pharmaceutical translation, medical translation is a specialty in which a mistranslation can have grave consequences. In practice, translators working in this field generally have formal educations in the medical sciences in addition to standard translation qualifications.
Scientific
The translation of scientific research papers, abstracts, conference proceedings, and other publications from one language into another. The specialized technical vocabulary used by researchers in each discipline demand that the translator of scientific texts have technical as well as linguistic expertise.
Scholarly
The translation of specialized texts written in an academic environment. Scholarly translation should not be confused with pedagogical translation.
Technical
The translation of technical texts (manuals, instructions, etc.). More specifically, texts that contain a high amount of terminology, that is, words or expressions that are used (almost) only within a specific field, or that describe that field in a great deal of detail.
Film
Dialogues and narrations of feature movies and foreign TV programs need to be translated for local viewers. In this case, translation for dubbing and translation for film subtitles demand different versions for the best effect. Thus, unlike the original language, the subtitles of the translated language are quite often not verbatim with the dialogue.
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